Shark

Sharks (superorder Selachimorpha) are a type of fish with a full cartilaginous skeleton and a highly streamlined body. Evolution Evidence for the existence of sharks extends back over 450–420 million years, into the Ordovician period, before land vertebrates existed and before many plants had colonised the continents. All that has been recovered from the first sharks are some scales. The oldest shark teeth are from 400 million years ago. The first sharks looked very different from modern sharks. The majority of the modern sharks can be traced back to around 100 million years ago. Contrary to popular belief they have not remained unchanged for 300 million years. However, many of the families we have today have been in existence for perhaps the last 150 million years. Mostly only the fossilized teeth of sharks are found, although often in large numbers. In some cases pieces of the internal skeleton or even complete fossilized sharks have been discovered. Estimates suggest that over a span of a few years a shark may grow tens of thousands of teeth, which explains the abundance of fossils. As the teeth consist of calcium phosphate, an apatite, they are easily fossilized. Instead of bones, sharks have cartilagenous skeletons, with a bone-like layer broken up into thousands of isolated apatite prisms. When a shark dies, the decomposing skeleton breaks up and the apatite prisms scatter. Complete shark skeletons are only preserved when rapid burial in bottom sediments occurs. Although Chondrichthyes are rooted in the Ordovician period, the first well preserved early shark fossil to be discovered was Cladoselache dating from approximately 350 million years ago. The fossil of this shark was found miraculously intact in the Cleveland Shale of Lake Erie. It was so well preserved that its muscle fibers were visible as were its kidneys. Cladoselache Had two low dorsal fins both with prominent spines, broad based pectoral fins and eyes set far forward on the head. The mouth was at the front of the head as opposed to the under slung mouths of modern sharks, and the teeth had a large central pointed cusp with a smaller point on each side. Although Cladoselache was almost certainly not the first ever true elasmobranch, armed with Cladoselache, paleontologists were able to categorically state that elasmobranchs had arrived. Among the most ancient and primitive sharks is Cladoselache, from about 370 million years ago, which has been found within the Paleozoic strata of Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. At this point in the Earth's history these rocks made up the soft sediment of the bottom of a large, shallow ocean, which stretched across much of North America. Cladoselache was only about 1 m long with stiff triangular fins and slender jaws. Its teeth had several pointed cusps, which would have been worn down by use. From the number of teeth found in any one place it is most likely that Cladoselache did not replace its teeth as regularly as modern sharks. Its caudal fins had a similar shape to the great white sharks and the pelagic shortfin and longfin makos. The discovery of whole fish found tail first in their stomachs suggest that they were fast swimmers with great agility. From about 300 to 150 million years ago, most fossil sharks can be assigned to one of two groups. One of these, the Acanthodii, was almost exclusive to freshwater environments. By the time this group became extinct (about 220 million years ago) they had achieved worldwide distribution. The other group, the hybodonts, appeared about 320 million years ago and was mostly found in the oceans, but also in freshwater. Modern sharks began to appear about 100 million years ago. Fossil mackerel shark teeth occurred in the Lower Cretaceous. One of the most recent families of sharks that evolved is the hammerhead sharks (family Sphyrnidae</a>), which emerged in Eocene. The oldest white shark teeth date from 60 to 65 million years ago, around the time of the extinction of the dinosaurs. In early white shark evolution there are at least two lineages: one with coarsely serrated teeth that probably gave rise to the modern great white shark, and another with finely serrated teeth and a tendency to attain gigantic proportions. This group includes the extinct Megalodon, Carcharodon megalodon, which like most extinct sharks is only known from its teeth and a few vertebrae. This shark could grow to more than 16 metres (52 ft) long and is recognized as the biggest known carnivorous fish to have ever existed. Fossil records reveal that this shark preyed upon whales and other large marine mammals. It is believed that the immense size of predatory sharks such as the great white may have arisen from the extinction of giant marine reptiles, such as the mosasaurs </a>and the diversification of mammals. It is known that at the same time these sharks were evolving some early mammalian groups evolved into aquatic forms. Certainly, wherever the teeth of large sharks have been found, there has also been an abundance of marine mammal bones, including seals, porpoises and whales. These bones frequently show signs of shark attack. There are hypotheses that suggest that large sharks evolved to better take advantage of larger prey. During the evolution of chrondrichthyes there have been many groups with bizarre appearances. Sometimes these families are collectively referred to as &quot;paraselachians&quot;. Many fossil skeletons contain unusual appendages. Most of which have as yet not been conclusively explained. Some examples of these paraselachians include:  <ul _wysiwyg_line_start="true"><li> Stethacanthus - a Cladodont which lived through the Silurian </a>Period between 380 and 300 million years ago. It had a modified first dorsal fin that terminated in a spine covered pad reminiscent of an inverted scrubbing brush. Its forehead also had a similar surface. These surfaces may have been used for pinning prey or for mating.</li><li> Helicoprion - from the Permian Period, had a conveyor belt of teeth that spiraled out of its lower jaw and a thin corresponding line of sharp teeth in the upper jaw. The lower whorl of teeth rotated out of the jaw as the shark grew. Unlike most sharks it retained the smaller previous teeth which rotated back into the jaw forming a spiral or whorl not unlike the growth pattern of a shell. The two dermal surfaces sliced against each other giving it a formidable shearing weapon.</li><li> Falcatus - from the carboniferous period had a curving, forward facing appendage in place of its first dorsal fin. It has been suggested that only the male may have had this sword like structure.</li><li> Xenacanthus - a member of the pleurocanthids. It had a long backward facing spike extending from the back of its skull and an eel like or ribbon like fin running down the length of its back.</li><li> Iniopteryx - Iniopterygians lived from the Devonian </a>into the Carboniferous </a>period. More closely related to modern day chimaeras, they had flexible pectoral fins which were disproportionately long and rayed for strength. It is unclear whether these &quot;wings&quot; were used to glide above the water or to paddle under it. The leading edge of the wings were covered with sharp toothy denticles.</li></ul> <h2 refid="4" _wysiwyg_new_line="true" _wysiwyg_line_start="true">Neoselachians <p _new_lines_before="0">As the Permian</a> Period was drawing to a close the seas were filling with Actinopterygians - the ray finned fishes. This was a food source that could not be ignored by the oceans predators. In response, the elasmobranchs began to radiate again and during the early Triassic a shark appeared in the fossil record that was similar enough in appearance to modern day sharks to be considered one of the first of the &quot;modern sharks&quot;. The name of this shark was Palaeospinax. Palaeospinax was morphologically similar to the dogfish of the family squalidae. It had a calcified sectioned vertebral column instead of a continuous notochord, its two dorsal fins had supportive leading edge spines, and most notably it had the under slung mouth of a modern shark. <h3 refid="2" _wysiwyg_new_line="true" _wysiwyg_line_start="true">Neoselachian radiation <p _new_lines_before="0">Amongst the first of the presently extant sharks to swim in the seas were the slow swimming Horn sharks and the Cow sharks but towards the mid cretaceous the fair to be had in the mid oceans was enough to push the development of fast moving predators that could pick off large, schooling, off shore fishes. At the time the seas were ruled by enormous icthyosaurs and plesiosaurs so this new food source did not come without risk to the sharks. During the Cretaceous</a> most of the present genera were firmly established and then around 60 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous a catastrophe occurred which wiped out the dinosaurs and many other species, leaving the remaining sharks as the supreme rulers of the oceans. <h2 refid="5" _wysiwyg_new_line="true" _wysiwyg_line_start="true">Carcharocles megalodon <p _new_lines_before="0"><input type="button" class="wysiwygDisabled wysiwygTemplate" value="main" refid="1" title="Click to edit this template or use drag&amp;drop to move template" /> About 50 million years ago a super predator evolved, the size of which the world had not previously seen. Megalodon was similar in shape and dentition to the White shark (Carcharodon carcharias</a>) the most notorious shark of today's temperate oceans. Its size however was spectacular. The largest of its fossilized teeth that have been found to date have measured over six inches long from point to base. Extrapolating this information and using Carcharodon carcharias as a guide, it would not be unreasonable to assume that Megalodon reached somewhere between 50 to 100 feet in length. <h2 refid="6" _wysiwyg_new_line="true" _wysiwyg_line_start="true">Ray radiation <p _new_lines_before="0">Near the end of the Triassic, at about the same time as Palaeospinax was swimming around the coastline of the super continent Pangaea, another group of sharks were adapting well to the bottom terrain of the shallow slopes. By the upper Jurassic Period the first guitarfishes were grubbing around for food and blending into the bottom sediments. These rays were a little more primitive than those of today. The main differences being a more shark like skeletal structure and the presence of fin spines. It has been suggested that all modern rays were derived from primitive guitarfishes but it is unclear exactly where the families are linked. The most recent addition to the batoid tree are the stingrays which showed up a mere 60 million years ago yet they fill the shallows of most tropical and temperate continental waters.