Homo rhodesiensis

Homo rhodesiensis

Homo rhodesiensis (Rhodesian man) is a possible hominin species described from the fossil Kabwe skull. Other morphologically-comparable remains have been found from the same, or earlier, time period in southern Africa (Hopefield or Saldanha), East Africa (Bodo, Ndutu, Eyasi,Ileret) and North Africa (Salé, Rabat, Dar-es-Soltane, Djbel Irhoud, Sidi Aberrahaman, Tighenif). These remains were dated between 300,000 and 125,000 years old.

Aleš Hrdlička of the Smithsonian recorded the recovery of Kabwe 1 or the Broken Hill Skull, with Tom Swiglaar and an unnamed African miner discovering the skull on June 17, 1921 during mining excavation of a subterranean ore pocket. They showed the skull to the mine managers, who photographed Swiglaar holding it, and passing it off to an on-site doctor. The doctor recognized that it could be of scientific importance and was shipped by the Rhodesia Broken Hill Mine Company to the British Museum several months later. Arthur Smith Woodward coined the species H. rhodesiensis based on these finds. Since the 1970s, the Zambian government has petitioned for the United Kingdom to give up custody of the skull based on several international laws and treaties relating to cultural artifacts. Based on the 1912 Bushman Relics Proclamation offered by Zambia, it is unlawful to remove cultural relics without a permit from the British South Africa Company (which was not issued for the Rhodesia Broken Hill Mine Company prior to donation). In May 2018, a UNESCO World Heritage Committee meeting showed British delegates agreeing to negotiate with Zambia on the repatriation of this specimen, with agreements regarding access, scans and digital data with the skull for researchers. However, this has not yet occurred. An undated humerus and parietal were also discovered, though it is unsure which species they belong to because they cannot be dated.

Marcel de Serres (1828) first reported faunal remains from Caune de l'Arago, considering them antediluvian. Jean Abélanet (1963) recovered stone tools, which inspired Henry de Lumley to excavate for human remains; in 1964, this search was validated through the discovery of Arago 21. Marie-Antoinette de Lumley, his wife, described them that year, dated to the Riss glaciation and thus before Homo neanderthalensis. They compared the material to Homo erectus and suggested they were intermediary between the two species, referring to them as "Pre-Neanderthals" to avoid assigning a species. In 1979, they suggested the name "Homo erectus tautavelensis", but other authors reassigned them to Homo heidelbergensis (which is typically called a direct ancestor to Neanderthals. The only skull elements is the distorted face Argo 21 and 47, a parietal. It is often reconstructed using typical Homo heidelbergensis remains, with one done by moulder René David with M.-A. de Lumely's oversight and was completed in 1982. In 1982 and 1986, Antonio Ascenzi made another reconstruction; Éliane Spitery reconstructed in 1982 and 1984; as did Emanuel Vlček in 1986; Dominique Grimaud-Hervé did in 1982 and 1991; Gaspard Guipert did in 2005; and M.-A. de Lumley completed the most recent reconstruction in 2015. Guiper considered it a Homo heidelbergensis and defined the species as polymorphic. M.-A. de Lumley (2015) redescribed the material as Homo erectus tautavelensis by restricting Homo heidelbergensis and comparing directly with Homo erectus sensu stricto. They found the remains are similar with the typically H. rhodesiensis Ceprano and Petralona and also found similarities with early Neanderthal specimens such as Atapuerca, Swanscombe and Vértesszőlős. Arago 21 and 47 may represent the same individual in 2014, 148 hominin fossils were discovered, including 123 teeth, 5 mandibles, 9 upper limb elements and 19 lower limb elements representing a total of 18 adults and 12 juveniles (30 individuals). The description of Homo longi (Homo daliensis) in 2021 recovers Arago 21 with Kabwe making a H. rhodesiensis and Stringer classifies it as near Petralona.

In 2021, the name "Homo bodoensis" was coined to replace H. rhodesiensis due to a problematic taxonomic history, a poor definition, low usage and how it is partly named after Cecil Rhodes who killed thousands of African citizens by Mirjana Roksandic, Predrag Radović, Xiu-Jie Wu and Christopher J. Bae (2021). It was coined after the Bodo cranium, which was assigned as the holotype of this species since it is the most diagnostic in the geographic and morphological senses. They assigned all H. rhodesiensis crania (Kabwe, Saldanha and Ndutu), LH 18 and possibly Salé and Ceprano. They also find the taxon to be distinct and Homo heidelbergensis as in-need of a revision. They note this taxon is not a true species, however, since it is extremely interbred, but they find it to be the direct ancestor to Homo sapiens and itself evolves from a lineage of Homo erectus ancestors. However, Chris Stringer, not affiliated with the project, thinks the name "rhodesiensis" should be kept because "you can’t just cancel a species name you don’t like". However, he agrees that Homo heidelbergensis deserves a revision. He notes the names "saldanensis" and "cepranensis" should be used, however, if H. rhodesiensis were disused since they take take priority (saldanensis takes priority over cepranensis, so it would be H. saldanensis if H. rhodesiensis were successfully disused). Stringer also states some facial characters are similar to Homo antecessor, so he is unsure and doubtful that H. rhodesiensis are the ancestors to derived humans. However, the team will continue to use the name and develop hypotheses, although the majority of scholars choose not to adopt this newfound idea based on Stringer's comments.

Description

H. bodoensis (H. rhodesiensis) is diagnosed by a unique combination of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens-like characters. In the former, it is similar in having a robust midface, total prognathism, projecting tori, a flat and low frontal squama, a sagittal keel, a low vault in profile, a prominent parietal angular torus, thick bones in the vault and no observable formen lacerum, presented as a narrow crevice. These may be linked to the retained cranial structure of Homo erectus. Characters similar to other Mid Pleistocene and later taxa are; an increased cranial capacity and the broader frontal and midvault, reduced postorbital constriction, indicated parietal bossing and the high and arched temporal squama that come with that, a vertical nasal margin and the incisive canal is oriented in from of the hard palate. Extremely thick and projecting segmented brow ridges with incipient division at the mid-orbit and lateral attenuate may be autapomorphies. Kabwe 1 supports ridges at the back of the skull which would have supported strong neck muscles. A 2022 study compares the nasopharyngeal morphology of Middle Pleistocene, including Petralona and Kabwe, and they sit firmly in the Homo sapiens hypodigm rather than the Homo neanderthalensis hypodigm. This skeletal morphology suggests closer affiliation to Homo sapiens.

Reconstruction of the Arago skull indicates similarity with Asian Homo erectus (strong brows, a receding forehead, a low face, a depression between the brows, postorbital constriction, defined ridges under the orbits, a weak chin and developed prognathism, strong and thick jaws, U-shaped tooth rows and supposed sexual dimorphism). However, Arago H. rhodesiensis are differentiated by a wider base, cheekbones oriented forwards, a larger and thicker brow and more defined postorbital constriction. Based on the fronto-parietal suture and robustness, Arago 21 is assumed to be a young man about 20 years old. Reconstructions find a 199 millimeter length, however, further measurements are negated here as they are based on presumably unrelated species. Material suggests strong jaw muscles. The mandibles have strongly developed tori, subhorizonal mylohyoid lines, deep and narrow submandibular forvea and a narrow-convex plane that merges with the tori. The teeth are proportionally large for a hominin of this time, with the P4 and M2 being especially large. The molar cusps retain anterior forvea, a mesial and distal trigonid crest, a cusp of Carabelli and 1-2 accessory cusps, which are all basal. Ralph Holloway (1983) estimated a cranial capacity of 1166 using Arago 21 and 46 with help of the Swanscombe occipital (a Homo neanderthalensis), which is comparable to Peking and is the lower range of derived Homo sapiens. Holloway described this individual as "garrulous" based on the expanded Broca's area, but admitted it was pure speculation in 2004. Hyoids from Homo ergaster are quite archaic, which indicates a "proto-language", but a hyoid from Atapuerca assignable to Homo neanderthalensis suggests that later erectines may have had speech. The spine and torso are represents an atlas and axis, 2 clavicles, 4 humeru, an ulna, pelves and a sacrum, 2 iliac wings are known, 7 femora, 2 tibiae and 7 fibulae. The arms and legs are notably massive, the acetabulum is ovular (typical of erectines). Leg thickening may be a result to colder climates, greater physical activity, or both. Using femora and fibulae, an average height of 166 centimeters (5 feet 5 inches) is recovered.

The name "H. njarasensis" is made up of 6 poorly-preserved and now lost skull fragments from Lake Eyasi. One cranium is preserved with a fragmented upper jaw, which has been named Eyasi 1. This is generally considered more well preserved. Additionally, the occipital making up Eyasi 4 was recently described. These Eyasi 1-4 were announced on November 29, 1935 and in 1938. Their skulls are similar to LH 18 and Kabwe. The cranial vaults are extremely thick, short when compared to "pre-paleoanthropes" (pre-Neanderthals), very low and medium-wide. The arch is very longitudinally convex, however, the frontal, parietal and upper occipital are flattened. At the cranium's greatest width, the region of relief in the temporal bones are low. The frontal slopes much like the Petralona skull. The brow ridges curve to form two arcs, and are very powerful and thick. The occipital is wide. The Eyasi remains, including Sima de los Huesos skulls 2, 4 and 8, inhabit the uppermost variability limit for pre-Neanderthals. The upper-occipital almost orients vertically. At the back of the skull forms a sort of high structure similar to the chignon hairstyle. The occipital carina are rounded, smoothed and strongly developed, which opposes Petralona. The skulls have a cranial capacity of 1100-1150 centimeters³, which is not enough to be pre-Neanderthals. Additionally, like Neanderthals, their teeth are taurodont. The crown area of large Homo heidelbergensis and Eyasi are distinguished from North African Aterian. One fossil frontal (EH06) of an "archaic Homo sapiens" was described in 2008. Lake Eyasi has preserved multiple hominid remains, the most famous is Eyasi 1. Most of such fossils are difficult to date. They resemble Homo sapiens in multiple ways, but also share traits from Neanderthals, such as their suprainiac fossa. However, most of these fossils are overlooked because of a lack of definite chronological control. They sampled 5 wildebeest teeth from the same assemblage, using electron spin resonance and ²³⁰Th/²³⁴U to find an age of 88,000-132,000 years. This is much earlier than the previous estimates, but correlates well with other Homo sapiens, which may include "H. njarasensis", and may indicate the date and spread of humans in Africa. Eyasi 4 is an occipital found where Kohl-Larsen found the other Eyasi hominids in the 1930s. Research shows these beds are similar to early MSA from the Upper Ndutu Beds of Olduvai Gorge. Eyasi 4, like 1, is thick-walled.

Classification

The Rhodesian Man is now sometimes considered to be H. heidelbergensis, or maybe an Africa subspecies of them, it is a polymorphic species that radiated from Africa to Eurasia between 0.8-0.12 million years ago. It has also been called Homo sapiens arcaicus or Homo sapiens rhodesiensis, but in 2003, White et al. stated the Rhodesian Man may have been ancestral to the Herto Man. The derivation point between the Rhodesian Man and H. sapiens has been proposed, but is obscured by a 400-260 kya time gap. The Herto remains were first called H. sapiens Idaltu, but the name has gone under scrutiny, since it is just outside H. sapiens range of variability, which may then make it a late H. rhodesiensis.

It was found:

	Homo erectus sensu stricto Homo antecessor Concestor Homo neanderthalensis Homo daliensis H. bodoensis → Homo sapiens

In the cladogram above, Homo naledi, Homo floresiensis and Homo luzonensis are excluded because they were not attached to the original cladogram because they have problematic classification. Some doubt that H. rhodesiensis is the direct ancestor to H. sapiens.

Homo njarasensis was originally named Africanthropus njarasensis. Later, however, the material was later moved to the genus Homo. It has been proposed as an intermediate between H. rhodesiensis and H. sapiens, being the direct ancestor of H. s. idaltu. With this classification, H. njarasensis would be, or close to, the origin of the species. The name was published by Hans Weinhart. It has been proposed H. njarasensis was close in relation to extinct African, Asian and European apes. According to some sources, material referred to Africanthropus is now attributed to early H. sapiens, but this is disputed. These fragments are reported as lost, and the name is no longer in use. Since the original designations, it has been reported H. njarasensis is distinct from Homo sapiens, but are still Homo. Thus, the original names, such as Palaeoanthropus, are invalid, and their individual species name, such as "njarasensis", are debatable. It has been suggested all "archaic Homo sapiens" to be grouped under one name, where Homo rhodesiensis has been suggested since it was named in 1921, as the earliest of all proposed names takes priority. Revision by T. D. White et al. (2003) placed H. njarasensis as a nomen dubium.

Paleobiology

Life History

30% of the Arago specimens died between 7-12 years of age, 30% of 18-30, 30% of 30-40 and 3% over 40. This gives an average lifespan (assuming survival past infancy) of 20-25 individuals with an infant mortality rate of 11%. If robust material are males, than they are slightly outnumbered by females. Non-tooth skull specimens Argo 21, 47 and 45 are assumed males, as well as 13 (a mandible), which is assumed of the same. Arago 2, 89, 119, 130 and 131 are assumed females. Iliac specimens Arago 44 and 121 are females.

Technology

The Ndutu skull was found at Lake Ndutu, which was full of faunal and lithic remains, of which 20 were definitely tools comprised of spheroids, 3 regular flakes, 2 triangular flakes, 1 rectangular flake and hammerstones. Later, Acheulean hand axes were discovered. Bodo 1 exhibits scratch marks thought to be ritual defleshing.

The de Lumley's categorize the tools from Caune de l'Arago as "Proto-Cherantian", a sub- of a possible subtype of the Neanderthal Mousterian industry, defined as producing few bifaces. They changed the name to "Mediterranean Acheulean" in 2004, and the former label was disused. 63% of tools are large stone shards, 32% are retouched tools, 3% are lithic cores and 2% are macro-tools. Excluding debris and simple chipping, small retouched tools make 90% of the assemblage, with macro-tools making 10%. Of retouched tools, 36% are scrapers, 16% are notches, 11% are Clactonian notches, 12% denticulate tools, 3% denticulated scrapers and 2% convergent scrapers. Macro-tools are 64% elaborate choppers, 13% primary choppers, 9% chopped tools, 7% rabots, 4% bifaces, 3% unifaces and 0.8% polyhedron-to-spherical-shaped tools. Of elaborate choppers, 60% are single edge, 26% have multiple points and 9% are converging points with 2 edges and one point. Bifaces are hypothesized to have been symmetrical on both sides for purely aesthetic reasons. Low quality quartz, sandstone, quartzose sandstone and limestone could be collected from river cobble; higher quality jasper and blue translucent quartz rocks could have been collected 15-30 kilometers (9.3-18.6 miles) away. Vein quartz would have been the most common material, and could have been common river cobble. It was used because it produced a reliable cutting edge and H. rhodesiensis were mostly producing scrapers. 90% of the G assemblage is made of vein quartz from the river below. Macro-tools and hammerstones are common from durable limestone, with more complex retouched tools made from higher quality flint or quartzite and bifaces from hornfel. Fire usage evidence in the upper segment of C dates to ~400 kya, with overall fire usage as a whole being scarce until around this time, possibly due to the invention of fire-starting technology or better maintenance strategies.

H. njarasensis was found near different ages of tools, such as Early Middle Stone Age, Levallois and 2 Archeulean choppers. These are said to be of a Sangoan culture. The remains originate from North Tanzania in the Lake Victoria region; 40 kilometers south of Garusi, 2 kilometers west of the southern peak of Mount Mumba, on the northeastern banks of Lake Eyasi (also known as Nyarassa and Nyasa), Eyasi village, 3o32 'South, 35o16' East. These were found on the surface of lacustrine sediments.

Paleopathology

Some remains from G and F appear to have been skinned and butchered while fresh based on striations that may suggest cannibalism. This could explain how the chest, hands and feet are absent, since they may have been left behind and eaten by animals. If this is true, than those in G specifically ate brains, tongues, flesh and bone marrow of the limbs of the recently deceased or killed. This would suggest ritual cannibalism rather than for survival, otherwise the entire body would have been used. A 500,000-year-old femur from Grotte à Hominidés, Morocco and has many bite marks on the bone that indicate either scavenging or predation. The bone is suggested to be of H. rhodesiensis. This individual was likely consumed by a hyaena, speculated to have happened during a territory dispute.

Diet

H. rhodesiensis seems to have eaten more big game than previous species, becoming an essential component. However, diet could have varied, with Terra Amata populations eating deer, elephants, boar, ibex, rhinoceros and aurochs. African sites typically contains bovines and horses, though these may have been scavenged. Some Afro-European sites targeted specific species, such as Olorgesaile, with 50-60 individual Theropithecus oswaldi. This increase of meat usage would suggest development in group hunting strategies in the Middle Pleistocene. Though some were close to oceans, lakes or rivers, aquatic exploitation was lacking.

Paleoecology

A series of new discoveries have kicked off the "muddle in the middle", a paleoanthropological problem concerning the taxonomy of African Middle Pleistocene hominins including the Florisbad skull, H. naledi, Border Cave Homo sapiens, Kabwe 1 and related specimens of similar ages. At one point, Florisbad was considered "Homo helmei", but recent studies suggest it is an 'early' basal Homo sapiens similar to Jebel Irhoud and Eliye Springs. Additionally, many of these specimens had poor dating, so their affinities are still blurry. Nonetheless, all of these were contemporaneous and overlapped with varying degrees. In 2021, it was noted that all African and some European specimens of Homo heidelbergensis and even some Homo sapiens should be sunk into H. rhodesiensis. This would make the species live all across Africa and in the Mediterranean. KNM-TH 45519-22 are chimpanzee specimens recovered within the same layer as as H. rhodesiensis at the Rift Valley. Destruction of the Broken Hill site has made dating impossible. Prior to the 1970s, it was thought to be 30-40,000 years old. Bada et al. (1974) established direct dating to 110,000 years based on acid racemisation. In 2010, the Smithsonian suggested an age of 150-300,000 years with an uppermost bound of 500,000 years based on new faunal material. However, a quarter millimeter of the skull was removed directly using new techniques and directly dated to 324-274,000 years and published in 2020. The description of H. bodoensis in 2021 suggested that this individual is late-surviving and derived. Populations at Eyasi were found alongside Mid-Pleistocene-aged fauna, including: Hipparion, a large giraffe and fossil baboons. Species from the Gamblian pluvial are: two extinct antelope species, one large extinct predator, zebras, giraffes, pigs, warthogs, hippos, white and black rhinoceroses, baboons, monkeys, porcupines and small rodents

Caune de l'Arago is 35 meters long and varies from 5-9 meters in width, but the walls likely caved during the last 100s-1000s of years. Excavation was oversaw by the Institut de Paléontologie Humaine and the Centre Européen de Recherche Préhistorique de Tautavel; the limestone cave opens along an 80-meter-tall cliff face above the Verdouble river and overlooking the Tautavel plain. Fossilferous deposits go 11 meters down, stratified into Lower, Middle and Upper Stratigraphic/Stalagmitic Complexes with hominin remains found in the Middle and the beginning of the Upper Stratigraphic Complexes. These are further subdivided into 4 units and 17 beds with 4 Units. These Units start at the letter Q and reach the letter A at the uppermost Unit. Beds Q-C are specific hominin localities that span oxygen stages 14-10, 550-400 kya, made of sand and aeolian sandy loam that is overlain with thick stalagmitic layers and further by breccia. Nearly all hominin remains are from G (445 kya using uranium-thorium dating), and these populations signify the earliest inhabited caves in the Pyrenees. Throughout occupation, it provided access to mountains, plains and rivers. The plain and plateau swung between temperate and humid forested region that were dominated by pines, deciduous and cyprus trees with mediterranean plants, to a cold-dry grassy steppe that switched from forest steppe about 550 kya and reverting 480 kya and again in 420 kya (and continuing the pattern after occupation). The mammalian fauna of the cave during forested period features red deer, fallow deer, Ovis ammon antiqua, Stephanorhinus hemitoechus, tahrs, cave lynx, cave lions, dholes, red foxes, Canis mosbachensis and Ursus deningeri. The latter and H. rhodesiensis possibly occupied during different seasons of the year when human occupation was intermittent. In cold events, Equus mosbachensis, reindeer, Bos priscus, Praeovibos and Stephanorhinus hemitoechus could have been abundant. beavers make their first appearance as prey in beds G and J. Like other archeological sites, occupations in different layers prefer different prey, such as reindeer in L, fallow deer in J and muskox in G. Ovis ammon antiqua are found in all beds and may have also been killed by non-human predators (particularly in O, N and M). Dental development of animals under 2 years old may indicate how long occupation lasted: it was long-term in G; intermittent of a months in P, J, I, F. E and D; and short in L. Human baby teeth in the long-term cycles and seasonally inhabited beds are found, indicating entire families lived in the cave. They are not found in bed L, which could mean that the peopling of the cave was only by a small hunting party.

Synonyms

• H. saldanensis (=Saldanha)
• H. cepranensis (=Ceprano)
• H. njarasensis (=Eyasi)
• H. tautavelensis (=Arago)
• H. petraloniensis (=Petralona)
• H. petralonensis (lapsus)
• H. asesernensis
• H. sapiens arcaicus
• H. sapiens rhodesiensis
• H. sapiens idaltu (=H. sapiens?)
• H. erectus tautavelensis (=Arago)
• H. erectus petraloniensis (=Petralona)
• H. erectus asesernensis
• H. neanderthalensis (Africanicus) njarasensis
• H. neanderthalensis (Africanicus) rhodesiensis
• H. heidelbergensis rhodesiensis
• Palaeoanthropus njarasensis (=Eyasi)
• Palaeoanthropus palestinensis (=Zuttiyeh)
• Africanthropus njarasensis (=Eyasi)
• Cyphanthropus
• Archanthropus
• Homo-proscopinus

Notable Specimens

• BH 1, Kabwe 1, Kabwe E686 or Broken Hill Skull "Rhodesian Man": Assigned by Arthur Smith Woodward in 1921, the "Rhodesian Man" or Broken Hill Skull, it has since been moved to Homo heidelbergensis. The skull was discovered in the Mutwe Wa Nsofu Area, in a lead and zinc mine on June 17, 1921 by Swiss miner Tom Zwiglaar. Additionally, an upper jaw, sacrum, a tibia and two femur fragments were also found. In 2021, it was referred to Homo bodoensis. The cranial capacity is 1230, which coupled with the skull, suggests an extremely robust individual with one of the largest brow ridges documented. The face is similar to Homo neanderthalensis (large nasals and thick brows) in some aspects. These have led to much debate, with some opting to call them an African extension of Homo heidelbergensis. The cranial capacity overlaps with Homo sapiens but the specimen is otherwise basal. This has led some to believe a connection between Homo heidelbergensis and species such as Neanderthals and Homo erectus. No successful DNA extractions have occurred. The age of the skull aligns with some of the earliest Homo sapiens Cavities are present in ten of the upper teeth and pitting suggests significant infection before death and implies that the cause of death may have been due to the pathologies in the teeth or by the chronic ear infection that bore a small circular incision into the braincase. .

• • Broken Hill E.898?: A partial right distal humerus end found loose from sediment and is not associated with any faunal or industrial remains. This makes the specimen unable to be dated. Their enigmatic origins, apparently found away from the skull, makes these specimens of little use. Authors considered that the fossil (of a strong adult male) to be of any age from the Early Pleistocene to the Holocene, but since it is undated no morphological data is useful because it can not be ascribed to a species. It was placed in an on-site tool house, which Erik Trinkaus rediscovered after learning of their existence in documents. Aleš Hrdlička (1925) initially identified it.
  • Broken Hill parietal?: A "rather thin" parietal that was discovered at the Broken Hill Mine and placed in a tool hut to be rediscovered by Erik Trinkaus. It is likely of an adolescent and was found loose from sediment and not with associated fauna or industry.
• Bodo cranium: An incomplete skull (including face, most of the frontal, partial midvault and the base-anterior foramen magnum) sometimes assigned to Homo heidelbergensis, H. rhodesiensis and sometimes Homo erectus. It has a cranial capacity of ~1250, the lower range of Homo sapiens; the skull is 21 centimeters long, 21 in width and 19.05 tall. Archeulean hand axes and cleavers alongside animal bones indicate this person butchered prey. The cranium itself shows evidence of being skinned shortly after death by another individual with a stone tool., with symmetrical cuts forming patterns and direction show it may have been a mortuary practice, being the earliest evidence of non-utilitarian mortuary practices. These cuts are found laterally on the maxilla, which has led to some speculating this was done specifically to remove the mandible. The skull bears a mosaic of primitive and derived features, such as a derived cranial capacity and a larger brow. It may be of a lineage between Homo erectus and derived Homo sapiens, but it is still unknown where exactly Bodo 1 fits. Increased encephalization in it and similar fossils may be a driving force for speciation in derived Homo sapiens. Ato Alemayehu Asfaw, Paul Whitehead and Craig Wood (1976) found the skull weathering from the ~600,000 year-old Upper Bodo sand unit surface of Middle Awash. In 2021, it was coined the holotype of Homo bodoensis.
• Ndutu cranium: A 400,000 year-old skull found in Tanzania. R.J. Clarke in 1976 referred it to H. erectus, and has been viewed as such since, with H. sapiens attributes recognized. Due to comparative research and similar finds, the latter seems most appropriate. Indirect cranial capacity suggests 1100 ml. The morphology of the sulcus and a protuberance existence leads Phillip Rightmire to state the skull is unlike H. erectus. However, Stinger (1986) suggests a thickened illiac pillar is in H. erectus. Clarke (1989) explains that an expanded parietal and occipital regions of the brain make it of H. sapiens. In 2021, it was referred to Homo bodoensis.
• Saldanha/Elandsfontein cranium: The Saldanha Man, "Homo saldanensis", is one of the key Homo heidelbergensis specimens, but has been estimated to be 0.5 million years old. It has not been directly dated. The skull preserved a mandible, which was visible in the shifting sands and was found on January 8, 1953 by Keith Jolly and Keith Singer on Elandsfontein farm, near Hopefield. It was published under H. saldanensis (Drennan, 1955). It was found to be similar to Kabwe 1 and LH 18 by Singer (1954). Later authors supported the identification as African Homo heidelbergensis or Homo rhodesiensis. In 2021, it was referred to Homo bodoensis.
• Ceprano Man, Argil or Ceprano Calvarium: This hominin is known from a single calvaria unearthed during highway construction near Ceprano, Italy in 1994. Although the fossil was initially damaged by a bulldozer, it was studied by Italo Biddittu who was near when the skull cap was found. Mallegni et al. in 2003 proposed a new name for the fossil, Homo cepranensis, which has stuck since. However, some consider the fossil an H. heidelbergensis, but Mounier et al. (2011) state the fossil is an appropriate ancestor to H. heidelbergensis, and proceed unique traits in the region. Of the holotype, the sulcus supraorbitalis is partial, a frontal tuber is half-developed and shifts medially, the supraorbital region concaves medially and the external auditory meatus is positioned intermediate regarding the processus zygomaticus temporalis are all exclusive characteristic of Mid-Pleistocene individuals. The torus occipitalis transversus is straight and articular tubercle is medio-laterally concaved, which are defined as derived. The petro-tympanic crests downward position, the opisthocranion coexists with the inion, the processus retromastoideus and torus angularis parietalis are all considered primitive. Based on regional correlations and numerous absolute dates, the fossil was dated 690,000-900,000 years old. In 2021, it was suggested to possibly be Homo bodoensis.
• LH 18 or Ngaloba LH 18: An early H. sapiens skull discovered by Mary Leakey's team in 1976, being about 120,000 years old. The cranium bears a mix of derived and basal characters and has a cranial capacity of ~1200. It differs from African H. sapiens to some degree but is considered the same species because they share far more similarities, being unlike Homo neanderthalensis and Homo erectus crania. In 2021, it was referred to Homo bodoensis.
• Salé: From the site of the same name, Salé is a skull discovered near Rabat Morocco in 1971, tentatively dated to 400,000 and 250,000-200,000 years. Some animals fossils but no stone tools were associated. The skull is small and has fine features but no strong muscle anchors. The cranial capacity is within the range of Homo erectus but below Homo sapiens. The braincase is long, low and thick-walled, similar to Homo erectus The expanded parietals and a rounded rear with a ridge stretching across, however, align with Homo sapiens. Asymmetrical markings at the back and base of the cranium imply a pathology. This had led to a difficult classification history, being attributed to both aforementioned species but also as Homo heidelbergensis and H. bodoensis in 2021.
• Berg Aukas femur: A large, robust proximal femur from Berg Aukas Mine, Namibia was estimated to be up to 93 kilograms (205 pounds) heavy and 7 feet tall^{[citation needed]}. It was originally tentatively assigned to an enormous population of Homo heidelbergensis but it is more comparable to the Kabwe size range. This individual appears to have done intense activity while maturing, which is likely why this femoral fragment is so massive. However, Lee Berger thinks the material may be too large to assign to H. rhodesiensis, but the recent suggested disuse of Homo heidelbergensis and reassignment of African individuals to H. rhodesiensis suggests it is indeed in the Kabwe group. It is ~2x the size of a derived Homo sapiens and has an unknown geological context, so its date is unknown, but it is assumed to be part of the "muddle". The specimen is heavily fossilized. Berger believes there may be a chance this specimen could be another species, which he briefly discusses in an online lecture; however, in the same lecture, he also states he is unsure of what the specimen truly belongs.
• BH-1 or Mala Balanica: A mandible from the Serbian Mala Balanica site. It has many primitive characters comparable to Early Pleistocene mandibles, which has led to historical classification as basal Homo sp. and Homo heidelbergensis. It is possibly from the Late Pleistocene, which is strange since H. rhodesiensis is known only from the MIddle Pleistocene. One possible explanation for this is given in the 2011 paper describing BH-1: that the Balkans may have carried multiple contemporaneous hominin species that may have preserved basal traits in a “hotspot of biodiversity”. Prominent planum alveolare and a thick mandibular coprus are basal. The exomolar sulcus is wide, the flat sublingual fossa is present and the submandibular fossa are poorly defined. It is a partial jaw with teeth, which are small. Derived Neanderthal traits are not seen. Potentially, it is an H. rhodesiensis.
• HaZore'a/Hazorea, HAZ-I through V: An Israeli specimen that may represent H. rhodesiensis based on a lack of Neanderthal traits and it's similarity to Ceprano. It is described as "Pithecanthropian" (Homo erectus), and was found near artifacts and animal bones. HAZ-I is an occipital, HAZ-II is a near-complete occipital, HAZ-III is an incomplete adult occipital, HAZ-IV is a fragmented infant frontal and HAZ-V is the left vertical branch of an adult mandible.
• Nadaouiyeh Aïn Askar: A near-complete left parietal once assigned to Homo erectus. It was discovered in 1996 alongside Acheulean ovular bifaces 450,000 years old. This date is unusual, and would imply a persistence into the Late Pleistocene, if this specimen belongs to H. rhodesiensis. It may be the latter based on a lack of Neanderthal characters, which is seen in Ceprano.
• Herto and Jebel Irhoud and similar specimens: Specimens traditionally attributed to H. sapiens, but are sometimes considered a transition between H. rhodesiensis and H. sapiens.
• Gladysvale: In a preserved brown hyena latrine in Gladysvale cave is a 195-257,000 year-old coprolite. In the calcified coprolite is a preserved hair labelled Homo sp. indet. by Backwell (2009). This hair, from South Africa, correlates with late H. rhodesiensis and early H. sapiens in this region.
• BOU-VP-2/66 "Daka calvaria/skull" or "Daka": The Daka skull was discovered from the Dakanihylo Member of the Bouri Formation, Middle Awash region, Ethiopia by Henry Gilbert in 1997. This area is rich in hominin fossils from 0.5 million years ago to over 6 million years ago. It bears resemblance to Asian skulls. It represents either a very late Homo erectus or a very early Homo rhodesiensis. The specimen has a cranial capacity of 995, an occipital (10.6 millimeters) and temporal (10.2 millimeters) thickness, a calvarial height above g-l (51 millimeters), g-op (73 millimeters) and n-op (80 millimeters), an endocranial capacity of 986 and strong flexion. Daka is slightly more damaged on the right and a relatively large space is found on the posterior of the mastoid near the Asterion, an extensively damaged. The temporals are not as inflated as apes and the temporal squamae are about 5.7 millimeters thick, centrally. The posterior temporal is about 10.6 millimeters thick adjacent to the occipitomastoid.
• Zuttiyeh "Galilee Man": The skull was discovered in 1925, being the first from Western Asia. It was grouped with Skhul and the fossils from Wadi el-Mughara Caves by Arthur Keith and Theodore D. McCown (1939) as Palaeoanthropus palestinensis. It is most often recognized as Homo heidelbergensis and bears most resemblance to Petralona. It was discovered by Francis Turville-Petre during his excavations (one of the first from this region) from 1925-26, referring to is as the Galilee Skull and describing it as Neanderthal-like. It was originally thought to have been Mousterian, but was from the earlier Acheulo-Yabrudian complex. The face was flat with no Neanderthal-like prognathism. The skull is housed in the Rockefeller Museum in East Jerusalem with a cast in the Israel Museum.
• Grotte à Hominidés: A femur, 500,000 years old, was discovered from Grotte à Hominidés, Morocco and has many bite marks on the bone that indicate either scavenging or predation. The bone is suggested to be of H. rhodesiensis. This individual was likely consumed by a hyaena, speculated to have happened during a territory dispute.
  • Grotte des Rhinocéros: Less than a mile away from Grotte à Hominidés, bears evidence of an accumulation of hunted and eaten animals.
• Montmaurin, Mandible of Montmaurin: The Montmaurin mandible was discovered by Raoul Cammas on June 18, 1949 in Grotte de la Niche in the oldest layer prior to Acheulean bifaces and close to occurrences of Machairodus Quarrymen mined cliffside limestone and revealed a cave system that was visited by Father Henri Breuil and Count Henri Bégouën, who entrusted Louis Méroc with excavation from 1946 to 1961 (though he was not very interested with Niche since he thought it did not bear stratigraphy and that the mandible was from La Terrasse). Cammas disputed this, considering the 2 vertebrae and a tibia discovered from here. Vallois (1955) described it, first in French and later in English in 1956. Vialet et al. (2017) examined the dental microstructure. It is from the Mindel-Riss interglacial 370-410 kya and was first assigned to Homo erectus. Mounier et al. (2009) assign an age closer to 400 kya and find relations with Homo heidelbergensis. Crégut-Bonnoure et al. (2010) later assigned it to 190-240 kya, an examination of lithic material gave 344-126 kya and finally, Martinex et al. (2020) place it between the age of the Sima de los Huesos Neanderthals and the Arago H. rhodesiensis. Vialet et al. (2018) find that is it small for being a young adult, suggesting that it is a female based on a Sima de los Huesos specimen, but could not confirm based on a limited sample size. It has 2-3 (3 at most) Neanderthal traits, similar enamel molar surfaces, enamel-dentin junction and the pulp cavity proportions. It is more archaic and similar to H. rhodesiensis specimens and more basal than the Sima de los Hueso hominins that are supposedly older. It has been compared to Mala Balanica and Ceprano.
• Eyasi 1-6: The initial discoveries were from 1935 and 1938, including a skull and partial mandible alongside stone tools near Lake Eyasi (also known as Lake Njarasa, Nyarassa and Nyasa or Lake Eyasi) in Tanzania. Other fossils were found in Olduvai Valley in 1936. Three skulls again near Eyasi were found in 1938, dating between 500,000 and 350,000 during the Late Pleistocene. Other remains were found near near a surveyed embankment, preserving a skull, mandible, teeth, stone tools and animal remains and other remains from Lake Njarasa. The skulls were at first assigned Homo erectus, but it is debated whether the skulls were of that species or another, closely related in theory, to H. rhodesiensis. The four (some sources say three; another fragment was described in 2008) skulls were also thought to be of the "earliest and most primitive Neanderthal", Africanthropus and Palaeoanthropus njarasensis, "early archaic Homo sapiens", H. heidelbergensis, "close to Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus", "not Pithecanthropus", "close to Broken Hill" or Homo rhodesiensis.